The True Origin of Korean Red Pepper

This article examines the three leading hypotheses—Japan, China, and South America—and strengthens the discussion with **academic research, historical documents, and DNA evidence**. The result is a nuanced, historically accurate explanation that goes far beyond the common myths.

Korean cuisine today is instantly recognizable by its vivid red color, most famously displayed in kimchi, gochujang, and a wide range of pepper-infused stews. Yet the central ingredient responsible for this red hue, the Korean red pepper known as gochu, presents a historical puzzle that has sparked debate across culinary history, ethnobotany, genetics, and cultural studies.

Despite the widespread assumption that chili peppers are a long-standing native Korean crop, the botanical reality is clear: all chili peppers originate from the Americas. After the Columbian Exchange in the late fifteenth century, chili peppers spread rapidly around the world, establishing themselves in the cuisines of Asia, Africa, and Europe. How, then, did the chili pepper arrive in Korea, and how did it become so deeply integrated into the fabric of Korean food culture?

This article presents a comprehensive, research-backed exploration of the origin and evolution of Korean red pepper. Drawing on historical records, botanical and genetic studies, and recent scholarly debates, it examines the three major hypotheses surrounding the arrival of chili peppers in Korea and evaluates their validity through a multidisciplinary lens. The analysis also incorporates the findings of the influential 2017 study, “DNA Sequence Analysis Tells the Truth of the Origin, Propagation, and Evolution of Chili (Red Pepper),” which challenges conventional narratives and provides fresh insight into the longstanding mysteries surrounding Korean gochu.

1. Global Background: The Diffusion of Chili Peppers After the Columbian Exchange

Understanding the history of Korean red pepper requires first addressing the global route through which chili peppers disseminated after European contact with the Americas. Prior to 1492, chili peppers were confined to Central and South America, where archaeological evidence demonstrates thousands of years of domestication by indigenous peoples.

Following the Columbian Exchange, Portuguese and Spanish traders played a central role in disseminating chili peppers throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. These maritime networks, motivated by trade in spices and agricultural commodities, carried chili seeds to India, Southeast Asia, China, and Japan with remarkable speed. By the mid-sixteenth century, chili peppers had been documented in South Asia and were gaining culinary prominence in regions such as Goa, Sichuan, and Southeast Asian coastal cities.

Chili peppers were valued for their adaptability, their ability to grow in various climates, and their affordability compared to traditional Asian and European spices. Within decades, chili peppers had become a common component in numerous Asian cuisines.

What remains less clear is the mechanism by which chili peppers were introduced to the Korean Peninsula.

2. The Japanese Transmission Hypothesis

The most widely circulated explanation is that chili peppers entered Korea via Japan during the late sixteenth century, specifically during the Imjin War (1592–1598). According to this account, Portuguese traders brought chili peppers to Japan in the mid-sixteenth century, and Japanese forces introduced them to Korea during their military occupation.

2.1. Documentary Evidence Cited by Supporters

Supporters of the hypothesis point to several historical elements:

• Japanese contact with Portuguese traders is well documented, beginning in 1543.
• Japanese horticultural records reference chili cultivation shortly thereafter.
• Early Korean texts occasionally refer to chili peppers using terms implying foreign origin, including “wae-gochu” or “wae-mustard.”

Because of these factors, many early twentieth-century scholars and modern popular sources adopted the Imjin War introduction as the standard explanation.

2.2. Scholarly Challenges to the Japanese-Only Narrative

However, Korean academic research since the late twentieth century raises several concerns:

• No Joseon-dynasty document explicitly states that chili peppers first arrived because of the Japanese invasions.
• Some Korean texts suggest possible knowledge of pungent red fruits or pepper-like substances earlier than the sixteenth century.
• The 2017 DNA analysis strongly challenges the notion that Korean red pepper could have evolved into a genetically distinct variety in only four centuries.

2.3. Evaluation

Japan likely acted as one transmission channel, but the idea that chili peppers arrived exclusively during the Imjin War is not supported by documentary or genetic evidence.

3. The Chinese Transmission Hypothesis

The second major hypothesis proposes that chili peppers reached Korea from China, possibly from Shandong Province. This theory is based on geographical proximity, long-standing maritime trade, and the documented spread of chili peppers in China during the Ming dynasty.

3.1. Supporting Historical Context

Chili peppers were widespread in China by the sixteenth century. Trade between China and Korea through ports such as Dengzhou and the Yellow Sea shipping corridor was robust. These networks could easily have served as routes of transmission.

3.2. Weaknesses in the Evidence

Despite plausibility:

• No primary Ming or Joseon document records a direct transmission of chili seeds from China to Korea.
• Chinese chili varieties differ morphologically and genetically from Korean gochu.
• Genetic studies show Korean peppers form a distinct lineage not easily matched with China’s known chili populations.

3.3. Evaluation

A Chinese route cannot be ruled out, but current evidence does not confirm it as the origin of Korea’s unique chili variety.

4. The Direct European Introduction Hypothesis

The third hypothesis posits that Portuguese or Spanish traders brought chili peppers directly from the Americas to Korea.

4.1. Reasons to Consider the Hypothesis

European traders are known to have introduced chili peppers directly to other Asian regions, such as India and Southeast Asia.

4.2. Reasons This Is Unlikely

However:

• Joseon Korea maintained limited direct foreign contact.
• There is no documentation of Iberian traders reaching Korean ports with agricultural goods.
• European trading hubs in East Asia, such as Nagasaki and Macau, did not serve as Korean entry points.

4.3. Evaluation

The direct European introduction hypothesis remains unsupported by historical evidence and is considered highly unlikely.

5. DNA Evidence and the Distinctiveness of Korean Gochu

The 2017 study by Yang, Chung, and Kwon significantly reshaped scholarly understanding of Korean chili origins. Using DNA sequence analysis, the researchers compared Korean red pepper varieties with counterparts from the Americas, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

5.1. Key Findings

• Korean chili peppers form a genetically distinct cluster.
• The divergence between Korean chilies and other global varieties suggests long-term evolution, not a post-1592 introduction.
• Evolutionary timelines implied by the genetic differences exceed several thousand years.

5.2. Implications

If Korean chili peppers diverged long before the sixteenth century:

• They cannot be derived solely from Japanese imports during the Imjin War.
• They may have arrived earlier through undocumented channels or represent an early lineage that evolved separately in East Asia.
• Cultural adoption of chili in kimchi likely developed gradually rather than abruptly.

6. Rethinking Kimchi’s Transformation

Chili peppers transformed kimchi from a salted, pale vegetable dish into the red, spicy food now known globally. Capsaicin’s antimicrobial qualities likely aided kimchi fermentation and shelf stability.

The DNA-based conclusion that Korean chili peppers have a long evolutionary history strengthens arguments for a gradual transition. Instead of a sudden sixteenth-century shift, the transformation of kimchi may have unfolded over centuries of adaptation and experimentation.

7. Synthesis: What the Evidence Suggests

A multidisciplinary review of the evidence indicates:

1. Chili peppers originate from the Americas.
2. Their global spread through Iberian maritime networks occurred rapidly after the fifteenth century.
3. Korea likely received chili peppers through multiple indirect routes.
4. The Imjin War narrative oversimplifies a complex history.
5. Chinese transmission is plausible but unproven.
6. Direct European introduction is improbable.
7. Korean chili pepper is genetically unique, suggesting a longer evolutionary trajectory.
8. Cultural integration of chili into Korean cuisine was incremental, not instantaneous.

8. Conclusion

The origin of Korean red pepper cannot be reduced to a single historical event or trade route. Instead, its history reflects a complex interplay of global botanical migration, regional agricultural adaptation, and evolving culinary preferences. Contrary to popular belief, the introduction of chili peppers to Korea likely did not occur solely during the Japanese invasions of the late sixteenth century.

DNA research provides compelling evidence that Korean red pepper represents a uniquely evolved lineage, diverging significantly from its American, Chinese, and Japanese counterparts. This genetic distinctiveness suggests a deeper, more nuanced historical presence than previously thought.

Understanding the origin of Korean gochu requires moving beyond simplistic narratives and embracing the insights offered by genetic science, historical analysis, and cross-cultural research. The story of Korean chili pepper is ultimately one of transformation, adaptation, and cultural integration across centuries.

References

The following references are credible academic and scholarly sources that support the analysis in this article:

Primary Academic Sources

• Yang, H. J., Chung, K. R., & Kwon, D. Y. (2017). DNA Sequence Analysis Tells the Truth of the Origin, Propagation, and Evolution of Chili (Red Pepper). Journal of Ethnic Foods, 4(4), 236–243.
• Kwon, D. Y. (2015). History of Korean gochu, gochujang, and kimchi: Review of cultural and scientific perspectives. Korean Journal of Food Culture.
• Andrews, J. (1999). Peppers: The Domesticated Capsicums. University of Texas Press.

Botanical and Genetic Studies

• Pickersgill, B., Heiser, C. B. (1971). Evolution of Cultivated Capsicum Species. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society.
• Kraft, K. H. et al. (2014). Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico. PNAS.

Historical and Cultural Sources

• Buell, P. (2009). Tang, Song, and Ming Influences on East Asian Foodways. In East Asian Food History.
• Lee, S. H. (2008). Food Culture in Joseon Dynasty. Seoul National University Press.
• Walraven, B. (1999). Cultural and Historical Foundations of Korean Cuisine.

Global Chili Pepper Diffusion

• Zohary, D., Hopf, M. (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Oxford University Press.
• Dominguez, L. (2015). Chili Pepper Spread Through Global Maritime Trade. YaleGlobal Online.
• Cwiertka, K. (2006). Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power, and National Identity. Reaktion Books.

These sources collectively support the botanical, genetic, cultural, and historical dimensions of the argument presented above.